China's Health Diplomacy Strategy During COVID-19 Crisis 2020-2022
Abstract
In time of crisis like COVID-19 outbreak, China’s health diplomacy has become a spotlight in terms of its international momentum in dealing the virus. This research is important to know how health diplomacy can be used as an effective foreign policy. The research question in this paper asks how did China conduct health diplomacy during the COVID-19 crisis from 2020 to 2022. This research used descriptive and literature research methods by collecting secondary data from related research and international organization, WHO, as main source for COVID-19 data. The data were analyzed using neoclassical realism theory. Not to mention, there is not much literature that analyzes China's before until the recent "New Normal" situation. When COVID-19 emerge, it simultaneously transforms its health diplomacy into vaccine diplomacy that begins from the first outbreak of the virus. It underwent scrutiny and criticism from other countries as they were sceptical about whether it is purely on conducting global health diplomacy or China's way of promoting a strategic framework. It also has a clear intention that its action is also to appease the world view toward its role since the virus is from Wuhan, a city in China. This research concludes international system can affect state behaviour toward its relations with other countries by examining China's health diplomacy.
Keywords: China’s Foreign Policy, Global Health Diplomacy, Vaccine Diplomacy
References
Ashok, R., et al. (2021, March 22). “China's CanSino Biologics COVID-19 Vaccine Receives Emergency Use Approval in Hungary." Reuters. Accessed from https://www.reuters.com/world/china/chinas-cansino-biologics-covid-19-vaccine-receives-emergency-use-approval-2021-03-22/.
Baptista, E. & Maler, S. (2022, November 17). "Chinese and Indonesian Presidents Pledge More COVID Vaccine Cooperation." Reuters. Accessed from https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/chinese-indonesian-presidents-pledge-more-covid-vaccine-cooperation-2022-11-16/.
BBC. (2022, October 21). "China Covid: The Politics Driving The Hellish Lockdowns." BBC. Accessed from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-63310524.
Bridge Beijing. (2022, December 28). "China COVID-19 Vaccine Tracker." Bridge Beijing. Accessed from https://bridgebeijing.com/our-publications/our-publications-1/china-covid-19-vaccines-tracker/.
Buckley, P. J. (2020). China’s Belt and Road Initiative and the COVID-19 crisis. Journal of International Business Policy, 3(1):1-4.
Buckley, C. (2022, October 14). "Uncle Xi' to Exalted Ruler: China's Leader Embodies His Authoritarian Era. The New York Times. Accessed from https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/14/world/asia/china-xi-jinping-communist-party.html.
Chow-Bing, N. (2020). COVID-19, Belt and Road Initiative and the Health Silk Road: Implications for Southeast Asia. University of Yangon (Centennial): 4th NACAI International Symposium, 34-37.
CIDCA. (2020). “Medical Aid.” China International Development Cooperation Agency. Accessed from https://en.cidca.gov.cn/cmtnews_21.html.
Feldbaum, H. & Michaud, J. (2010). Health Diplomacy and the Enduring Relevance of Foreign Policy Interests. PLoS Medicine, 7 (4):1-4.
Freeman, C. P. (2020). Reading Kindleberger in Beijing: Xi Jinping’s China as a provider of global public goods. The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 23 (2):1-22.
Gauttam, P., et al. (2020). COVID-19 and Chinese Global Health Diplomacy: Geopolitical Opportunity for China’s Hegemony? Millenial Asia, 11 (3):319-340.
Gong, X. (2019). The Belt & Road Initiative and China’s influence in Southeast Asia. The Pacific Review, 32 (4):635-665.
Gyu, L. D. (2021). The Belt and Road Initiative after COVID: The Rise of Health and Digital Silk Roads. Asan Institute for Policy Studies, 15:1-4.
Hall, C. (2022, October 29). "China Rolls Out First Inhalable COVID Vaccine." Reuters. Accessed from https://www.reuters.com/world/china/china-rolls-out-first-inhalable-covid-vaccine-2022-10-28/.
Javed, S. & Chattu, V. K. (2020). Strengthening the COVID-19 Pandemic Response, Global Leadership, and International Cooperation Through Global Health Diplomacy. Health Promotion Perspectives, 10 (4):300-305.
Jiahan, C. (2020). Toward a Health Silk Road. World Century Publishing Corporation and Shanghai Institutes for International Studies, 6 (1):19-35.
Karásková, I. & Blablová, V. (2021, March 24). "The Logic of China's Vaccine Diplomacy." The Diplomat. Accessed from https://thediplomat.com/2021/03/the-logic-of-chinas-vaccine-diplomacy/.
Killeen, O. J., et al. (2018). Chinese Global Health Diplomacy in Africa: Opportunities and Challenges. Global Health Governance, 12 (2):4-29.
Lee, S. T. (2021). Vaccine diplomacy: nation branding and China’s COVID-19 soft power play. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 16:1-15.
Liu, L., Huang, Y, Jin, J. (2022). China’s Vaccine Diplomacy and Its Implications for Global. MDPI, 10 (7):1-10.
Liu, P., et al. (2014). China’s Distinctive Engagement in Global Health. The Lancet, 384:793-804.
Liu, Z. Z. (2022, November 1). "Zero-COVID Is the Least of Xi's Economic Problems." Foreign Policy. Accessed from https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/11/01/zero-covid-china-economic-problems-demographics/.
Mardell, J. (2021, May 3). "Europe Shouldn't Underestimate the Global Appeal of China's Vaccine Diplomacy." Merics. Accessed from https://merics.org/en/short-analysis/europe-shouldnt-underestimate-global-appeal-chinas-vaccine-diplomacy.
Mathieu, E., et al. (2020). "Coronavirus (COVID-19) Vaccinations." Our World in Data. Accessed from https://ourworldindata.org/covid-vaccinations.
Meng, Z., et al. (2021). China’s COVID-19 Vaccination Strategy and its Impact on the Global Pandemic. Risk Management and Healthcare Policy, 14:1-6.
McDonagh, N. (2021). System Rivalry during Pandemic Times: A Political Economy View of Great Power Vaccine Diplomacy. A Research Agenda for COVID-19 and Society, 5:1-15.
Meibauer, G. (2021). Neorealism, neoclassical realism, and the problem(s) of history. SAGE Journals, 37 (2):1-22.
Mouritz, F. (2020). Implications of the COVID-19 Pandemic on China’s Belt and Road Initiative. Connections, 19 (2):115-124.
Neack, L. (2019). Studying foreign policy comparatively: cases and analysis. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield.
OECD. (2021). The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. Economic Policy Reforms 2021: Going for Growth. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/economics/economic-policy-reforms-2021_3c796721-en.
Pinghui, Z. & McCarthy, S. (2021, May 27). "Chinese Drug Firm Sinopharm Finally Publishes Covid-19 Vaccine Trial Data." South China Morning Post. Accessed from https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3135067/chinese-drug-firm-sinopharm-finally-publishes-covid-19-vaccine.
Purdon, M. (2017). Neoclassical Realism and International Climate Change Politics: Moral Imperative and Political Constraint in International Climate Finance. Journal of International Relations and Development, 17:263-300.
Rathbun, B. (2008). A Rose by Any Other Name: Neoclassical Realism as the Logical and Necessary Extension of Structural Realism. Security Studies, 17 (2):294-321.
Reuters. (2021a, February 6). "China Approves Sinovac Biotech COVID-19 Vaccine for General Public Use." Reuters. Accessed from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-vaccine-sinovac-idUSKBN2A60AY.
Reuters. (2021b, February 25). "China Approves Two More Domestic COVID-19 Vaccines for Public Use." Reuters. Accessed from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-china-vaccine/china-approves-two-more-domestic-covid-19-vaccines-for-public-use-idUKKBN2AP1MW?edition-redirect=uk.
Reuters. (2021c, March 15). "China IMCAS's COVID-19 Vaccine Obtained Emergency Use Approval in China." Reuters. Accessed from https://www.reuters.com/article/health-coronavirus-china-vaccine/china-imcass-covid-19-vaccine-obtained-emergency-use-approval-in-china-idUSL4N2LD3BZ.
Reuters. (2021d, May 14). "Kangtai Biological's COVID-19 Vaccine Gets Emergency Use Approval in China." Reuters. Accessed from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-vaccine-kangtai/kangtai-biologicals-covid-19-vaccine-gets-emergency-use-approval-in-china-idUSKBN2CV1F6.
Reuters. (2022, September 1). "China to Publish Detailed Economic Policy Steps in Early September." Reuters. Accessed from https://www.reuters.com/world/china/china-publish-detailed-economic-policy-steps-early-september-2022-09-01/.
Ruwitch, J. (2018, March 16). "Timeline - The rise of Chinese leader Xi Jinping." Reuters. Accessed from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-parliament-xi-timeline-idUSKCN1GS0ZA.
SCMP. (2021, May 28). "Explainer | What is the US-China trade war?" South China Morning Post. Accessed from https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3078745/what-us-china-trade-war-how-it-started-and-what-inside-phase.
Soong, J.J. (2020). Perception and Strategy of ASEAN’s States on China’s Footprints under Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): Perspectives of State-Society-Business with Balancing-Bandwagoning-Hedging Consideration. The Chinese Economy, 54 (1):1-8.
Tambo, E., et al. (2019). China’s Belt and Road Initiative: Incorporating Public Health Measures Toward Global Economic Growth and Shared Prosperity. Global Health Journal, 3 (2):46-49.
Wheaton, S. (2020, May 18). "Chinese Vaccine Would Be 'Global Public Good,' Xi Says." Politico. Accessed from https://www.politico.com/news/2020/05/18/chinese-vaccine-would-be-global-public-good-xi-says-265039.
WHO. (2021, May 24). “Background Document on the Inactivated Vaccine Sinovac-CoronaVac Against COVID-19.”
WHO. Accessed from https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/341455.
WHO. (2022a). “About WHO in China.” WHO. Accessed from https://www.who.int/china/about-us#:~:text=It%20joined%20the%20WHO%20on,China%20was%20established%20in%201981.
WHO. (2022b). "Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Pandemic.” WHO. Accessed from https://www.who.int/europe/emergencies/situations/covid-19.
WHO. (2022c, June 3). “COVID-19 Vaccine (Vero Cell), Inactivated (Sinopharm).” WHO. Accessed from https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/sinopharm-vero-cell---inactivated-covid-19-vaccine.
Baptista, E. & Maler, S. (2022, November 17). "Chinese and Indonesian Presidents Pledge More COVID Vaccine Cooperation." Reuters. Accessed from https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/chinese-indonesian-presidents-pledge-more-covid-vaccine-cooperation-2022-11-16/.
BBC. (2022, October 21). "China Covid: The Politics Driving The Hellish Lockdowns." BBC. Accessed from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-63310524.
Bridge Beijing. (2022, December 28). "China COVID-19 Vaccine Tracker." Bridge Beijing. Accessed from https://bridgebeijing.com/our-publications/our-publications-1/china-covid-19-vaccines-tracker/.
Buckley, P. J. (2020). China’s Belt and Road Initiative and the COVID-19 crisis. Journal of International Business Policy, 3(1):1-4.
Buckley, C. (2022, October 14). "Uncle Xi' to Exalted Ruler: China's Leader Embodies His Authoritarian Era. The New York Times. Accessed from https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/14/world/asia/china-xi-jinping-communist-party.html.
Chow-Bing, N. (2020). COVID-19, Belt and Road Initiative and the Health Silk Road: Implications for Southeast Asia. University of Yangon (Centennial): 4th NACAI International Symposium, 34-37.
CIDCA. (2020). “Medical Aid.” China International Development Cooperation Agency. Accessed from https://en.cidca.gov.cn/cmtnews_21.html.
Feldbaum, H. & Michaud, J. (2010). Health Diplomacy and the Enduring Relevance of Foreign Policy Interests. PLoS Medicine, 7 (4):1-4.
Freeman, C. P. (2020). Reading Kindleberger in Beijing: Xi Jinping’s China as a provider of global public goods. The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 23 (2):1-22.
Gauttam, P., et al. (2020). COVID-19 and Chinese Global Health Diplomacy: Geopolitical Opportunity for China’s Hegemony? Millenial Asia, 11 (3):319-340.
Gong, X. (2019). The Belt & Road Initiative and China’s influence in Southeast Asia. The Pacific Review, 32 (4):635-665.
Gyu, L. D. (2021). The Belt and Road Initiative after COVID: The Rise of Health and Digital Silk Roads. Asan Institute for Policy Studies, 15:1-4.
Hall, C. (2022, October 29). "China Rolls Out First Inhalable COVID Vaccine." Reuters. Accessed from https://www.reuters.com/world/china/china-rolls-out-first-inhalable-covid-vaccine-2022-10-28/.
Javed, S. & Chattu, V. K. (2020). Strengthening the COVID-19 Pandemic Response, Global Leadership, and International Cooperation Through Global Health Diplomacy. Health Promotion Perspectives, 10 (4):300-305.
Jiahan, C. (2020). Toward a Health Silk Road. World Century Publishing Corporation and Shanghai Institutes for International Studies, 6 (1):19-35.
Karásková, I. & Blablová, V. (2021, March 24). "The Logic of China's Vaccine Diplomacy." The Diplomat. Accessed from https://thediplomat.com/2021/03/the-logic-of-chinas-vaccine-diplomacy/.
Killeen, O. J., et al. (2018). Chinese Global Health Diplomacy in Africa: Opportunities and Challenges. Global Health Governance, 12 (2):4-29.
Lee, S. T. (2021). Vaccine diplomacy: nation branding and China’s COVID-19 soft power play. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 16:1-15.
Liu, L., Huang, Y, Jin, J. (2022). China’s Vaccine Diplomacy and Its Implications for Global. MDPI, 10 (7):1-10.
Liu, P., et al. (2014). China’s Distinctive Engagement in Global Health. The Lancet, 384:793-804.
Liu, Z. Z. (2022, November 1). "Zero-COVID Is the Least of Xi's Economic Problems." Foreign Policy. Accessed from https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/11/01/zero-covid-china-economic-problems-demographics/.
Mardell, J. (2021, May 3). "Europe Shouldn't Underestimate the Global Appeal of China's Vaccine Diplomacy." Merics. Accessed from https://merics.org/en/short-analysis/europe-shouldnt-underestimate-global-appeal-chinas-vaccine-diplomacy.
Mathieu, E., et al. (2020). "Coronavirus (COVID-19) Vaccinations." Our World in Data. Accessed from https://ourworldindata.org/covid-vaccinations.
Meng, Z., et al. (2021). China’s COVID-19 Vaccination Strategy and its Impact on the Global Pandemic. Risk Management and Healthcare Policy, 14:1-6.
McDonagh, N. (2021). System Rivalry during Pandemic Times: A Political Economy View of Great Power Vaccine Diplomacy. A Research Agenda for COVID-19 and Society, 5:1-15.
Meibauer, G. (2021). Neorealism, neoclassical realism, and the problem(s) of history. SAGE Journals, 37 (2):1-22.
Mouritz, F. (2020). Implications of the COVID-19 Pandemic on China’s Belt and Road Initiative. Connections, 19 (2):115-124.
Neack, L. (2019). Studying foreign policy comparatively: cases and analysis. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield.
OECD. (2021). The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. Economic Policy Reforms 2021: Going for Growth. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/economics/economic-policy-reforms-2021_3c796721-en.
Pinghui, Z. & McCarthy, S. (2021, May 27). "Chinese Drug Firm Sinopharm Finally Publishes Covid-19 Vaccine Trial Data." South China Morning Post. Accessed from https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3135067/chinese-drug-firm-sinopharm-finally-publishes-covid-19-vaccine.
Purdon, M. (2017). Neoclassical Realism and International Climate Change Politics: Moral Imperative and Political Constraint in International Climate Finance. Journal of International Relations and Development, 17:263-300.
Rathbun, B. (2008). A Rose by Any Other Name: Neoclassical Realism as the Logical and Necessary Extension of Structural Realism. Security Studies, 17 (2):294-321.
Reuters. (2021a, February 6). "China Approves Sinovac Biotech COVID-19 Vaccine for General Public Use." Reuters. Accessed from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-vaccine-sinovac-idUSKBN2A60AY.
Reuters. (2021b, February 25). "China Approves Two More Domestic COVID-19 Vaccines for Public Use." Reuters. Accessed from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-china-vaccine/china-approves-two-more-domestic-covid-19-vaccines-for-public-use-idUKKBN2AP1MW?edition-redirect=uk.
Reuters. (2021c, March 15). "China IMCAS's COVID-19 Vaccine Obtained Emergency Use Approval in China." Reuters. Accessed from https://www.reuters.com/article/health-coronavirus-china-vaccine/china-imcass-covid-19-vaccine-obtained-emergency-use-approval-in-china-idUSL4N2LD3BZ.
Reuters. (2021d, May 14). "Kangtai Biological's COVID-19 Vaccine Gets Emergency Use Approval in China." Reuters. Accessed from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-vaccine-kangtai/kangtai-biologicals-covid-19-vaccine-gets-emergency-use-approval-in-china-idUSKBN2CV1F6.
Reuters. (2022, September 1). "China to Publish Detailed Economic Policy Steps in Early September." Reuters. Accessed from https://www.reuters.com/world/china/china-publish-detailed-economic-policy-steps-early-september-2022-09-01/.
Ruwitch, J. (2018, March 16). "Timeline - The rise of Chinese leader Xi Jinping." Reuters. Accessed from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-parliament-xi-timeline-idUSKCN1GS0ZA.
SCMP. (2021, May 28). "Explainer | What is the US-China trade war?" South China Morning Post. Accessed from https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3078745/what-us-china-trade-war-how-it-started-and-what-inside-phase.
Soong, J.J. (2020). Perception and Strategy of ASEAN’s States on China’s Footprints under Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): Perspectives of State-Society-Business with Balancing-Bandwagoning-Hedging Consideration. The Chinese Economy, 54 (1):1-8.
Tambo, E., et al. (2019). China’s Belt and Road Initiative: Incorporating Public Health Measures Toward Global Economic Growth and Shared Prosperity. Global Health Journal, 3 (2):46-49.
Wheaton, S. (2020, May 18). "Chinese Vaccine Would Be 'Global Public Good,' Xi Says." Politico. Accessed from https://www.politico.com/news/2020/05/18/chinese-vaccine-would-be-global-public-good-xi-says-265039.
WHO. (2021, May 24). “Background Document on the Inactivated Vaccine Sinovac-CoronaVac Against COVID-19.”
WHO. Accessed from https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/341455.
WHO. (2022a). “About WHO in China.” WHO. Accessed from https://www.who.int/china/about-us#:~:text=It%20joined%20the%20WHO%20on,China%20was%20established%20in%201981.
WHO. (2022b). "Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Pandemic.” WHO. Accessed from https://www.who.int/europe/emergencies/situations/covid-19.
WHO. (2022c, June 3). “COVID-19 Vaccine (Vero Cell), Inactivated (Sinopharm).” WHO. Accessed from https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/sinopharm-vero-cell---inactivated-covid-19-vaccine.
Published
2024-06-03
How to Cite
KARTODIRDJO, Azzizah; RAHMAN, Muhammad Sigit Andhi.
China's Health Diplomacy Strategy During COVID-19 Crisis 2020-2022.
Insignia: Journal of International Relations, [S.l.], v. 11, n. 1, p. 93-107, june 2024.
ISSN 2597-9868.
Available at: <https://jos.unsoed.ac.id/index.php/insignia/article/view/11296>. Date accessed: 22 apr. 2025.
doi: https://doi.org/10.20884/1.ins.2024.11.1.11296.
Section
Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish in this Journal agree to the following terms:
1. The author retains copyright and grants the journal the right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons attribution license that allows others to share the work within an acknowledgment of the work’s authorship and initial publication of this journal.
2. Authors can enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal’s published version of the work (e.g., acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal).
3. Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their websites) before and during submission, as it can lead to productive exchanges and earlier and more extraordinary citations of published works.
.png)
