PATOPHYSIOLOGY AND LATEST TREATMENT OPTIONS OF VASCULITIS: A LITERATURE REVIEW
Abstract
Inflammation is a body defense process against various potentially damaging causes. Excessive inflammation in the vascular can cause an autoimmune process in vasculitis disease. Vasculitis can cause damage to the tissues and organs that are vascularized. So far, the heterogeneous pathophysiology and clinical manifestations of the disease have been well understood. Although therapy with glucocorticoids is effective for disease remission, complications that often occur earlier in patients can fail the therapy. Therefore, a more effective method for accurate diagnosis is needed as a patient management approach. A more detailed and interrelated understanding of the disease will further encourage the improvement of the quality of the medical procedures so that it is expected to improve the patient’s prognosis. This literature review aimed to explain detail started from the prevalence of vasculitis cases, followed by the underlying risk factors and the development of effective diagnostic and management flows to date. The method of this literature review was searching for articles from various databases in PubMed, Google Scholar, and the Google search engine. Based on various literature obtained, each classification of vasculitis has unique characteristics including the type of inflammation that occurs and the onset of the disease that differs for each age group. The diagnostic flow still starts from anamnesis to the use of imaging and laboratory examinations and the application of criteria for a definitive diagnosis. Further management is differentiated based on the type of vasculitis, treatment phase, and response to therapy. Further studies are needed, especially in determining the reference values of laboratory examinations used for diagnosis, determining the dose of therapy, and efforts to treat complications that occur. Vasculitis remains a heterogeneous autoimmune disease that requires further attention in efforts to establish a diagnosis and apply the most appropriate management to the patient’s condition.
References
Abukanna, A.M. et al. (2023) ‘Updates on the Prognosis of Giant Cell Arteritis: A Systematic Review’, Cureus, 15(12). Available at: https://doi.org/10.7759%2Fcureus.50299.
Aitken, M. and Basu, N. (2020) ‘Improving quality of life in vasculitis patients’, Rheumatology, 59. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/rheumatology/kez546.
Álamo, B.S. et al. (2023) ‘Long-term outcomes and prognostic factors for survival of patients with ANCA-associated vasculitis’, Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, 38(7). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfac320.
Alan, I.S. and Alan, B. (2017) ‘Side Effects of Glucocorticoids’, in N. Malangu (ed.) Pharmacokinetics and Adverse Effects of Drugs - Mechanisms and Risks Factors. IntechOpen. Available at: https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/58357.
Aviña-Zubieta, J.A. et al. (2016) ‘Risk of Myocardial Infarction and Stroke in Patients With Granulomatosis With Polyangiitis (Wegener’s): A Population-Based Study’, Arthritis Rheumatol, 68(11). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/art.39762.
Berden, A. et al. (2012) ‘Diagnosis and management of ANCA associated vasculitis’, BMJ [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.e26.
Brogan, P. and Eleftheriou, D. (2018) ‘Vasculitis update: pathogenesis and biomarkers’, Pediatr Nephrol, 33(2). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00467-017-3597-4.
Carette, S. (2022) ‘Vasculitis: What Have We Learned in the Last 50 Years?’, The Journal of Rheumatology, 49(7). Available at: https://doi.org/10.3899/jrheum.220207.
Castañeda, S. et al. (2022) ‘Advances in the Treatment of Giant Cell Arteritis’, J Clin Med, 11(6). Available at: https://doi.org/10.55563/clinexprheumatol/0nd4kk.
Chehroudi, C., Booth, R.A. and Milman, N. (2018) ‘Diagnostic outcome and indications for testing in patients with positive ANCA at a Canadian tertiary care centre’, Rheumatol Int, 38(4).
Chen, L. et al. (2017) ‘Inflammatory responses and inflammation-associated diseases in organs’, Oncotarget, 9(6). Available at: https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.23208.
Chung, S.A., Langford, C.A., et al. (2021) ‘2021 American College of Rheumatology/Vasculitis Foundation Guideline for the Management of Antineutrophil Cytoplasmic Antibody–Associated Vasculitis’, Arthtritis & Rheumatology, 0(0). Available at: https://www.vasculitisfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/2021-ACR-VF-Guideline-for-Management-of-ANCA-Associated-Vasculitis.pdf.
Chung, S.A., Gorelik, M., et al. (2021) ‘2021 American College of Rheumatology/Vasculitis Foundation Guideline for the Management of Polyarteritis Nodosa’, Arthtritis & Rheumatology, 0(0), pp. 1–10. Available at: https://www.vasculitisfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/2021-ACR-VF-Guideline-for-Management-of-Polyarteritis-Nodosa.pdf.
Dagostin, M.A. et al. (2021) ‘Mortality predictors in ANCA-associated vasculitis’, Medicine (Baltimore), 100(51). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1097%2FMD.0000000000028305.
Dhaliwal, K.K. et al. (2020) ‘Life-threatening complications of Henoch-Schönlein purpura: diffuse alveolar haemorrhage, venous thrombosis and bowel ischaemia’, BMJ Case Reports, 13(9). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2020-235905.
Duarte, A.C. et al. (2023) ‘ANCA-associated vasculitis: overview and practical issues of diagnosis and therapy from a European perspective’, Porto Biomed J, 8(6). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1097%2Fj.pbj.0000000000000237.
Dumont, A. et al. (2020) ‘Characteristics and outcomes of patients with ophthalmologic involvement in giant-cell arteritis: A case-control study’, Semin Arthritis Rheum, 50(2), pp. 335–41. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semarthrit.2019.09.008.
Editorial (2024) ‘Vasculitis: the promising road ahead’, The Lancet Rheumatology, 6(5). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2665-9913(24)00094-8.
Fraticelli, P., Benfaremo, D. and Gabrielli, A. (2021) ‘Diagnosis and management of leukocytoclastic vasculitis’, Intern Emerg Med, 16(4).
Furman, D. et al. (2019) ‘Chronic inflammation in the etiology of disease across the life span’, Nature Medicine, 25. Available at: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-019-0675-0.
Gloor, A.D. et al. (2022) ‘Age as a risk factor in vasculitis’, Semin Immunopathol, 44(3). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00281-022-00911-1.
Goglin, S. and Chung, S.A. (2016) ‘Current Treatment of Cyroglobulinemic Vasculitis’, Current Treatment Options in Rheumatology, 2, pp. 213–24.
Gorelik, M. et al. (2022) ‘2021 American College of Rheumatology/Vasculitis Foundation Guideline for the Management of Kawasaki Disease’, Arthtritis & Rheumatology, 0(0), pp. 1–11. Available at: https://www.vasculitisfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Guideline-Management-Kawasaki-Disease.pdf.
Halabi, C. et al. (2021) ‘Neurological manifestations of polyarteritis nodosa: a tour of the neuroaxis by case series’, BMC Neurol [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12883-021-02228-2.
Hellmich, B. et al. (2024) ‘EULAR recommendations for the management of ANCA-associated vasculitis: 2022 update’, Ann Rheum Dis, 83(1). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1136/ard-2022-223764.
Jennette, J.C. et al. (2013) ‘2012 revised International Chapel Hill Consensus Conference Nomenclature of Vasculitides’, Arthritis Rheum, 65(1), pp. 1–11. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/art.37715.
Kermani, T. et al. (2016) ‘The Birmingham Vasculitis Activity Score as a Measure of Disease Activity in Patients with Giant Cell Arteritis’, J Rheumatol, 43(6).
Kronbichler, A. et al. (2020) ‘Comorbidities in ANCA-associated vasculitis’, Rheumatology (Oxford) [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093%2Frheumatology%2Fkez617.
Langford, C.A. (2010) ‘Vasculitis’, The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 125(2).
Lian, S.B., Teoh, Y.L. and Tay, Y.-K. (2019) ‘A rare case of polyarteritis nodosa associated with nontuberculous mycobacterial infection’, Wiley, 7(10). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/ccr3.2414.
Lusida, M., Kurniawan, M.Z. and Nugroho, J. (2020) ‘Takayasu arteritis in a rural hospital in Indonesia’, BMJ Case Rep, 13(1). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2019-230884.
Mainbourg, S. et al. (2020) ‘Prevalence of Giant Cell Arteritis Relapse in Patients Treated With Glucocorticoids: A Meta-Analysis’, Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken), 72(6). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/acr.23901.
Mamfaluti, T. et al. (2023) ‘Diagnostik Vaskulitis Primer pada Penyakit Imunologi’, Jurnal Kedokteran Nanggroe Medika, 6(1).
Marzano, A.V. et al. (2017) ‘Cutaneous Manifestations of ANCA-Associated Small Vessels Vasculitis’, Clin Rev Allergy Immunol, 53(3). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12016-017-8616-5.
Matius, D. (2020) ‘Purpura Henoch Schonlein pada Perempuan Dewasa’, Neliti, 47(4). Available at: https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/397331-purpura-henoch-schonlein-pada-perempuan-55cfbfe9.pdf.
Maz, M. et al. (2021) ‘2021 American College of Rheumatology/Vasculitis Foundation Guideline for the Management of Giant Cell Arteritis and Takayasu Arteritis’, Arthtritis & Rheumatology, 0(0), pp. 1–17. Available at: https://www.vasculitisfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/2021-ACR-VF-Guideline-for-Management-of-Giant-Cell-Arteritis-and-Takayasu-Artheritis.pdf.
Melduni, R.M. et al. (2020) ‘Association of Autoimmune Vasculitis and Incident Atrial Fibrillation: A Population‐Based Case‐Control Study’, Journal of American Heart Association [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.120.015977.
Morita, T.C.A.B. et al. (2020) ‘Update on vasculitis: an overview and dermatological clues for clinical and histopathological diagnosis - part I’, An Bras Dermatol, 95(3). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abd.2020.01.003.
Nakazawa, D. et al. (2019) ‘Pathogenesis and therapeutic interventions for ANCA-associated vasculitis’, Nat Rev Rheumatol, 15(2). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41584-018-0145-y.
Odler, B. et al. (2023) ‘Risk factors for serious infections in ANCA-associated vasculitis’, Ann Rheum Dis, 82(5). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fard-2022-223401.
Pagnoux, C. (2016) ‘Updates in ANCA-associated vasculitis’, Eur J Rheumatol, 3(3). Available at: https://doi.org/10.5152%2Feurjrheum.2015.0043.
Perrineau, S. et al. (2021) ‘A French cohort of patients with giant cell arteritis: glucocorticoid treatment and its associated side effects’, Clin Exp Rheumatol, 129(2). Available at: https://doi.org/10.55563/clinexprheumatol/0nd4kk.
Putri, A.T. and Awalia (2022) ‘Diagnosis and management of Henoch-Schonlein purpura in Indonesian elderly with severe complication: A rare case’, Ann Med Surg (Lond) [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.amsu.2022.103650.
Radic, M., Kaliterna, D.M. and Radic, J. (2012) ‘Drug-induced vasculitis: a clinical and pathological review’, The Journal of Medicine, 70(1). Available at: https://www.njmonline.nl/getpdf.php?id=1131.
Reamy, B. V, Williams, P.M. and Lindsay, T.J. (2009) ‘Henoch-Schönlein Purpura’, Am Fam Physician, 80(7). Available at: https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2009/1001/p697.html.
Redondo-Rodriguez, R. et al. (2022) ‘Systematic Review and Metaanalysis of Worldwide Incidence and Prevalence of Antineutrophil Cytoplasmic Antibody (ANCA) Associated Vasculitis’, J Clin Med, 11(9). Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fjcm11092573.
Schmitt, C. et al. (2022) ‘Intravenous tocilizumab for the treatment of giant cell arteritis: a phase Ib dose-ranging pharmacokinetic bridging study’, Arthritis Research & Therapy, 24. Available at: https://arthritis-research.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13075-022-02815-9.
Sestan, M. and Jelusic, M. (2023) ‘Diagnostic and Management Strategies of IgA Vasculitis Nephritis/Henoch-Schonlein Purpura Nephritis in Pediatric Patients: Current Perspectives’, Pediatric Health Med Ther, 14, pp. 89–98.
Sharma, A., Mohammad, A.J. and Turesson, C. (2020) ‘Incidence and prevalence of giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica: A systematic literature review’, Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism, 50(5). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semarthrit.2020.07.005.
Speer, C. et al. (2021) ‘Cyclophosphamide induction dose and outcomes in ANCA-associated vasculitis with renal involvement’, Medicine (Baltimore), 100(29). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1097%2FMD.0000000000026733.
Tan, J.A. et al. (2017) ‘Mortality in ANCA-associated vasculitis: ameta-analysis of observational studies’, Ann Rheum Dis, 76(9). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1136/annrheumdis-2016-210942.
Theofilis, P. et al. (2022) ‘Overview of infections as an etiologic factor and complication in patients with vasculitides’, Rheumatology International, 42, pp. 759–770. Available at: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00296-022-05100-9.
Tsiakas, S. et al. (2021) ‘Plasma Exchange in ANCA-Associated Vasculitis: A Narrative Review’, J Clin Med, 10(21). Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fjcm10215154.
Virgilio, A. De et al. (2016) ‘Polyarteritis nodosa: A contemporary overview’, Autoimmun Rev, 15(6). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autrev.2016.02.015.
Watanabe, R. et al. (2020) ‘Pathogenesis of Giant Cell Arteritis and Takayasu Arteritis – Similarities and Differences’, Curr Rheumatoi Rep, 22(10). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11926-020-00948-x.
Watts, R.A. et al. (2022) ‘Global epidemiology of vasculitis’, Nature Reviews Rheumatology, 18, pp. 22–34. Available at: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41584-021-00718-8.
Wechsler, M.E. et al. (2017) ‘Mepolizumab or Placebo for Eosinophilic Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis’, N Engl J Med, 376(20). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa1702079.
Weyand, C.M. and Goronzy, J.J. (2013) ‘Immune mechanisms in medium and large-vessel vasculitis’, Nat Rev Rheumatol, 9(12). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrrheum.2013.161.
Xiang, Y. et al. (2023) ‘The role of inflammation in autoimmune disease: a therapeutic target’, Front Immunol [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2023.1267091.
Aitken, M. and Basu, N. (2020) ‘Improving quality of life in vasculitis patients’, Rheumatology, 59. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/rheumatology/kez546.
Álamo, B.S. et al. (2023) ‘Long-term outcomes and prognostic factors for survival of patients with ANCA-associated vasculitis’, Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, 38(7). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfac320.
Alan, I.S. and Alan, B. (2017) ‘Side Effects of Glucocorticoids’, in N. Malangu (ed.) Pharmacokinetics and Adverse Effects of Drugs - Mechanisms and Risks Factors. IntechOpen. Available at: https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/58357.
Aviña-Zubieta, J.A. et al. (2016) ‘Risk of Myocardial Infarction and Stroke in Patients With Granulomatosis With Polyangiitis (Wegener’s): A Population-Based Study’, Arthritis Rheumatol, 68(11). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/art.39762.
Berden, A. et al. (2012) ‘Diagnosis and management of ANCA associated vasculitis’, BMJ [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.e26.
Brogan, P. and Eleftheriou, D. (2018) ‘Vasculitis update: pathogenesis and biomarkers’, Pediatr Nephrol, 33(2). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00467-017-3597-4.
Carette, S. (2022) ‘Vasculitis: What Have We Learned in the Last 50 Years?’, The Journal of Rheumatology, 49(7). Available at: https://doi.org/10.3899/jrheum.220207.
Castañeda, S. et al. (2022) ‘Advances in the Treatment of Giant Cell Arteritis’, J Clin Med, 11(6). Available at: https://doi.org/10.55563/clinexprheumatol/0nd4kk.
Chehroudi, C., Booth, R.A. and Milman, N. (2018) ‘Diagnostic outcome and indications for testing in patients with positive ANCA at a Canadian tertiary care centre’, Rheumatol Int, 38(4).
Chen, L. et al. (2017) ‘Inflammatory responses and inflammation-associated diseases in organs’, Oncotarget, 9(6). Available at: https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.23208.
Chung, S.A., Langford, C.A., et al. (2021) ‘2021 American College of Rheumatology/Vasculitis Foundation Guideline for the Management of Antineutrophil Cytoplasmic Antibody–Associated Vasculitis’, Arthtritis & Rheumatology, 0(0). Available at: https://www.vasculitisfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/2021-ACR-VF-Guideline-for-Management-of-ANCA-Associated-Vasculitis.pdf.
Chung, S.A., Gorelik, M., et al. (2021) ‘2021 American College of Rheumatology/Vasculitis Foundation Guideline for the Management of Polyarteritis Nodosa’, Arthtritis & Rheumatology, 0(0), pp. 1–10. Available at: https://www.vasculitisfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/2021-ACR-VF-Guideline-for-Management-of-Polyarteritis-Nodosa.pdf.
Dagostin, M.A. et al. (2021) ‘Mortality predictors in ANCA-associated vasculitis’, Medicine (Baltimore), 100(51). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1097%2FMD.0000000000028305.
Dhaliwal, K.K. et al. (2020) ‘Life-threatening complications of Henoch-Schönlein purpura: diffuse alveolar haemorrhage, venous thrombosis and bowel ischaemia’, BMJ Case Reports, 13(9). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2020-235905.
Duarte, A.C. et al. (2023) ‘ANCA-associated vasculitis: overview and practical issues of diagnosis and therapy from a European perspective’, Porto Biomed J, 8(6). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1097%2Fj.pbj.0000000000000237.
Dumont, A. et al. (2020) ‘Characteristics and outcomes of patients with ophthalmologic involvement in giant-cell arteritis: A case-control study’, Semin Arthritis Rheum, 50(2), pp. 335–41. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semarthrit.2019.09.008.
Editorial (2024) ‘Vasculitis: the promising road ahead’, The Lancet Rheumatology, 6(5). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2665-9913(24)00094-8.
Fraticelli, P., Benfaremo, D. and Gabrielli, A. (2021) ‘Diagnosis and management of leukocytoclastic vasculitis’, Intern Emerg Med, 16(4).
Furman, D. et al. (2019) ‘Chronic inflammation in the etiology of disease across the life span’, Nature Medicine, 25. Available at: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-019-0675-0.
Gloor, A.D. et al. (2022) ‘Age as a risk factor in vasculitis’, Semin Immunopathol, 44(3). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00281-022-00911-1.
Goglin, S. and Chung, S.A. (2016) ‘Current Treatment of Cyroglobulinemic Vasculitis’, Current Treatment Options in Rheumatology, 2, pp. 213–24.
Gorelik, M. et al. (2022) ‘2021 American College of Rheumatology/Vasculitis Foundation Guideline for the Management of Kawasaki Disease’, Arthtritis & Rheumatology, 0(0), pp. 1–11. Available at: https://www.vasculitisfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Guideline-Management-Kawasaki-Disease.pdf.
Halabi, C. et al. (2021) ‘Neurological manifestations of polyarteritis nodosa: a tour of the neuroaxis by case series’, BMC Neurol [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12883-021-02228-2.
Hellmich, B. et al. (2024) ‘EULAR recommendations for the management of ANCA-associated vasculitis: 2022 update’, Ann Rheum Dis, 83(1). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1136/ard-2022-223764.
Jennette, J.C. et al. (2013) ‘2012 revised International Chapel Hill Consensus Conference Nomenclature of Vasculitides’, Arthritis Rheum, 65(1), pp. 1–11. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/art.37715.
Kermani, T. et al. (2016) ‘The Birmingham Vasculitis Activity Score as a Measure of Disease Activity in Patients with Giant Cell Arteritis’, J Rheumatol, 43(6).
Kronbichler, A. et al. (2020) ‘Comorbidities in ANCA-associated vasculitis’, Rheumatology (Oxford) [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093%2Frheumatology%2Fkez617.
Langford, C.A. (2010) ‘Vasculitis’, The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 125(2).
Lian, S.B., Teoh, Y.L. and Tay, Y.-K. (2019) ‘A rare case of polyarteritis nodosa associated with nontuberculous mycobacterial infection’, Wiley, 7(10). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/ccr3.2414.
Lusida, M., Kurniawan, M.Z. and Nugroho, J. (2020) ‘Takayasu arteritis in a rural hospital in Indonesia’, BMJ Case Rep, 13(1). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2019-230884.
Mainbourg, S. et al. (2020) ‘Prevalence of Giant Cell Arteritis Relapse in Patients Treated With Glucocorticoids: A Meta-Analysis’, Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken), 72(6). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/acr.23901.
Mamfaluti, T. et al. (2023) ‘Diagnostik Vaskulitis Primer pada Penyakit Imunologi’, Jurnal Kedokteran Nanggroe Medika, 6(1).
Marzano, A.V. et al. (2017) ‘Cutaneous Manifestations of ANCA-Associated Small Vessels Vasculitis’, Clin Rev Allergy Immunol, 53(3). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12016-017-8616-5.
Matius, D. (2020) ‘Purpura Henoch Schonlein pada Perempuan Dewasa’, Neliti, 47(4). Available at: https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/397331-purpura-henoch-schonlein-pada-perempuan-55cfbfe9.pdf.
Maz, M. et al. (2021) ‘2021 American College of Rheumatology/Vasculitis Foundation Guideline for the Management of Giant Cell Arteritis and Takayasu Arteritis’, Arthtritis & Rheumatology, 0(0), pp. 1–17. Available at: https://www.vasculitisfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/2021-ACR-VF-Guideline-for-Management-of-Giant-Cell-Arteritis-and-Takayasu-Artheritis.pdf.
Melduni, R.M. et al. (2020) ‘Association of Autoimmune Vasculitis and Incident Atrial Fibrillation: A Population‐Based Case‐Control Study’, Journal of American Heart Association [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.120.015977.
Morita, T.C.A.B. et al. (2020) ‘Update on vasculitis: an overview and dermatological clues for clinical and histopathological diagnosis - part I’, An Bras Dermatol, 95(3). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abd.2020.01.003.
Nakazawa, D. et al. (2019) ‘Pathogenesis and therapeutic interventions for ANCA-associated vasculitis’, Nat Rev Rheumatol, 15(2). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41584-018-0145-y.
Odler, B. et al. (2023) ‘Risk factors for serious infections in ANCA-associated vasculitis’, Ann Rheum Dis, 82(5). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fard-2022-223401.
Pagnoux, C. (2016) ‘Updates in ANCA-associated vasculitis’, Eur J Rheumatol, 3(3). Available at: https://doi.org/10.5152%2Feurjrheum.2015.0043.
Perrineau, S. et al. (2021) ‘A French cohort of patients with giant cell arteritis: glucocorticoid treatment and its associated side effects’, Clin Exp Rheumatol, 129(2). Available at: https://doi.org/10.55563/clinexprheumatol/0nd4kk.
Putri, A.T. and Awalia (2022) ‘Diagnosis and management of Henoch-Schonlein purpura in Indonesian elderly with severe complication: A rare case’, Ann Med Surg (Lond) [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.amsu.2022.103650.
Radic, M., Kaliterna, D.M. and Radic, J. (2012) ‘Drug-induced vasculitis: a clinical and pathological review’, The Journal of Medicine, 70(1). Available at: https://www.njmonline.nl/getpdf.php?id=1131.
Reamy, B. V, Williams, P.M. and Lindsay, T.J. (2009) ‘Henoch-Schönlein Purpura’, Am Fam Physician, 80(7). Available at: https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2009/1001/p697.html.
Redondo-Rodriguez, R. et al. (2022) ‘Systematic Review and Metaanalysis of Worldwide Incidence and Prevalence of Antineutrophil Cytoplasmic Antibody (ANCA) Associated Vasculitis’, J Clin Med, 11(9). Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fjcm11092573.
Schmitt, C. et al. (2022) ‘Intravenous tocilizumab for the treatment of giant cell arteritis: a phase Ib dose-ranging pharmacokinetic bridging study’, Arthritis Research & Therapy, 24. Available at: https://arthritis-research.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13075-022-02815-9.
Sestan, M. and Jelusic, M. (2023) ‘Diagnostic and Management Strategies of IgA Vasculitis Nephritis/Henoch-Schonlein Purpura Nephritis in Pediatric Patients: Current Perspectives’, Pediatric Health Med Ther, 14, pp. 89–98.
Sharma, A., Mohammad, A.J. and Turesson, C. (2020) ‘Incidence and prevalence of giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica: A systematic literature review’, Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism, 50(5). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semarthrit.2020.07.005.
Speer, C. et al. (2021) ‘Cyclophosphamide induction dose and outcomes in ANCA-associated vasculitis with renal involvement’, Medicine (Baltimore), 100(29). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1097%2FMD.0000000000026733.
Tan, J.A. et al. (2017) ‘Mortality in ANCA-associated vasculitis: ameta-analysis of observational studies’, Ann Rheum Dis, 76(9). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1136/annrheumdis-2016-210942.
Theofilis, P. et al. (2022) ‘Overview of infections as an etiologic factor and complication in patients with vasculitides’, Rheumatology International, 42, pp. 759–770. Available at: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00296-022-05100-9.
Tsiakas, S. et al. (2021) ‘Plasma Exchange in ANCA-Associated Vasculitis: A Narrative Review’, J Clin Med, 10(21). Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fjcm10215154.
Virgilio, A. De et al. (2016) ‘Polyarteritis nodosa: A contemporary overview’, Autoimmun Rev, 15(6). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autrev.2016.02.015.
Watanabe, R. et al. (2020) ‘Pathogenesis of Giant Cell Arteritis and Takayasu Arteritis – Similarities and Differences’, Curr Rheumatoi Rep, 22(10). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11926-020-00948-x.
Watts, R.A. et al. (2022) ‘Global epidemiology of vasculitis’, Nature Reviews Rheumatology, 18, pp. 22–34. Available at: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41584-021-00718-8.
Wechsler, M.E. et al. (2017) ‘Mepolizumab or Placebo for Eosinophilic Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis’, N Engl J Med, 376(20). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa1702079.
Weyand, C.M. and Goronzy, J.J. (2013) ‘Immune mechanisms in medium and large-vessel vasculitis’, Nat Rev Rheumatol, 9(12). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrrheum.2013.161.
Xiang, Y. et al. (2023) ‘The role of inflammation in autoimmune disease: a therapeutic target’, Front Immunol [Preprint]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2023.1267091.
Published
2025-05-12
How to Cite
SURYANTARINI, Ni Wayan Puspa Wijaya; SATRIAWAN, Wira.
PATOPHYSIOLOGY AND LATEST TREATMENT OPTIONS OF VASCULITIS: A LITERATURE REVIEW.
Mandala Of Health, [S.l.], v. 18, n. 1, p. 46-65, may 2025.
ISSN 2615-6954.
Available at: <https://jos.unsoed.ac.id/index.php/mandala/article/view/14892>. Date accessed: 13 may 2025.
doi: https://doi.org/10.20884/1.mandala.2025.18.1.14892.
Section
Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
