Caught Between Great Powers: Oman’s Neutrality in the Saudi-Iran Rivalry
Abstract
This article aims to explain the reason for Oman’s neutrality policy amid Saudi-Iran growing tension in the region. The neutral stance from Oman raised some questions about their position as a part of the members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) that, if following the logic of consequences, should take sides with Saudi, and put pressure on Iran due to Saudi presence in the group. Oman always promotes peace and tends to avoid confrontation when facing Saudi-Iran rivalry. By implementing explanative methods and a constructivism paradigm based on norms as a tool of analysis, and supported with secondary data, this article found out that Oman’s neutrality decision in the Saudi-Iran rivalry is largely being influenced by their domestic norms, that is Ibadism, that made them capable to avoid conflict in the region, in this case, the Saudi-Iran rivalry. Ibadism also drives them to always promote peace in the region, because this teaching is based on four main ideas, namely tolerance, just rule, acceptance of the other, and peaceful compromises. In the end, this domestic norm influenced Oman’s decision-maker’s conception of the importance of preserving stability in the region. This then becomes an important explanation about why Oman breaks with their fellow GCC members that tend to support Saudi in the rivalry with Iran and decided to follow neutrality as their main policy.
Keywords: domestic norms, Ibadism, neutrality, Oman, Saudi-Iran rivalry
References
Book
Coppi, G. (2018). The Humanitarian Crisis in Yemen: Beyond the Man-Made Disaster. Vienna: International Peace Institute.
Creswell, J. W. (2018). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Method. Los Angeles: SAGE Publication.
Finnemore, M. (1996). National Interest in International Society. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Funsch, L.P. (2015). Oman Reborn: Balancing Tradition and Modernization. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Goshey, E. (2019). Omani Ibadism: Transitions in Modernity, Encounters with Salafism. New Jersey: Princeton University.
Hoffman, V.J. (2012). The Essentials of Ibadi Islam. New York: Syracuse University Press.
Kechichian, J.A. (1995). Oman and the World: The Emergence of an Independent Foreign Policy. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation.
Klotz, A. & Lynch, C. (2007). Strategies for Research in Constructivist International Relations. New York: M.E. Sharpe.
Oman Ministry of Information (2015). The Royal Speeches of His Majesty Sultan Qaboos Bin Said. Muscat: Oman Ministry of Information.
Paul, C., Clarke, C. P., Grill, B. & Dunigan, M. (2013). Paths to Victory: Detailed Insurgency Case Studies. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation.
Chapter in Book
Baabood, A. (2016). Oman’s Independent Foreign Policy. In Khalid S. Almezaini & Jean-Marc Rickli, The Small Gulf States: Foreign and Security Policies Before and After the Arab Spring (pp. 107-122). London: Taylor & Francis.
Baabood, A. & Baabood, A. (2020). Omani and Qatari Roles in the Yemen Crisis. In Stephen W. Day & Noel Brehony, Global, Regional, and Local Dynamics in the Yemen Crisis (pp. 165-178). London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Jepperson, R., Wendt, A. & Katzenstein, P.J. (1996). Norms, Identity, and Culture in National Security. In Peter J. Katzenstein, The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics (33-75). New York: Columbia University Press.
Feierstein, G. M. (2018). Yemen and the GCC Crisis. In Khalid Al-Jaber & Sigurd Neubauer, The Gulf Crisis: Reshaping the Alliances in the Middle East (pp. 109-134). Washington DC: Gulf International Forum.
Journal
Abdulkareem, A. (2017). Oman Positions on the Regional Crisis. Al-Bayan Center for Planning and Studies, 1-15.
Albasoos, H. & Maashani, M. (2020). Oman’s Diplomacy Strategy: Maneuvering Tools to Face Regional Challenges. International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science, 9(2), 152-163.
Amiri, R.E., Samsu, K.H.B.K. & Gholipour, H.F. (2011). The Hajj and Iran’s Foreign Policy towards Saudi Arabia. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 46(6), 678-690.
Basundoro, A.F. (2020). Perang Proksi Kontemporer Arab Saudi-Iran Sebagai Bentuk Turbulensi Timur Tengah: Sebuah Analisis Geopolitik. Jurnal Penelitian Politik, 17(1), 1-16.
Bierschenk, T. (1988). Religion and Political Structure: Remarks on Ibadism in Oman and the Mzab (Algeria). Studia Islamica, 68, 107-127.
Binhuwaidin, M. (2019). Oman’s Response to a Rising Iran: A Case of Strategic Hedging. Journal of Arabian Studies, 9(1), 1-12.
Elliott, C.D. (2018). Developing Tolerance and Conservatism: A Study of Ibadi Oman. UCLA Journal of Religion, 2, 146-179.
Finnemore, M. & Sikkink, K. (1998). International Norm Dynamics and Political Change. International Organization, 52(4), 887-917.
Guzansky, Y. (2015). The Foreign-Policy Tools of Small Powers: Strategic Hedging in the Persian Gulf. Middle East Policy, 22(1), 112-122.
Horton, M. (2020). Yemen’s War Test Oman’s Neutrality: Focusing on the Saudi Footprint in al-Mahra. Terrorism Monitor, 18(20), 3-5.
Lefebvre, J.A. (2010). Oman’s Foreign Policy in the Twenty-First Century. Middle East Policy, 17(1), 99-114.
Miller, J. (1997). Creating Modern Oman: An Interview with Sultan Qabus. Foreign Affairs, 76(3), 13-18.
O’Reilly, M. J. (1998). Omanibalancing: Oman Confronts an Uncertain Future. Middle East Journal, 52(1), 70-84.
Rabi, U. (2006). Oman and the Arab-Israeli Conflict: The Reflection of a Pragmatic Foreign Policy. Israel Affairs, 11(3), 535-551.
Wahyuni, S. & Baharuddin, S. S. B. (2018). The Impact of the GCC Boycott on Qatar Foreign Policy. Jurnal Transformasi Global, 4(2), 80-89.
Newspaper Article: Online
Al-Falahi, A. (2016, 11 October). “Just how neutral is Oman in Yemen war?” Al-monitor. Accessed from https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2016/10/oman-neutral-saudi-war-iran-houthis.html.
Central Intelligence Agency. (2023). “The World Factbook: Oman.” Accessed from https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/oman/.
Dudley, D. (2017, 8 June). “A Winner Emerges From The Qatar Crisis: Oman's National Airline.” Forbes. Accessed from https://www.forbes.com/sites/dominicdudley/2017/06/08/oman-air-takes-advantage-of-qatar-crisis/?sh=10d3407525b4.
Gulf News. (2002, 09 April). “Oman's Grand Mufti tells Muslims to unite to defeat the enemy.” Accessed from https://gulfnews.com/uae/omans-grand-mufti-tells-muslims-to-unite-to-defeat-the-enemy-1.384208.
Reuters. (2020, 15 October). “Two U.S. nationals released by Houthi rebels in possible prisoner swap.” Accessed from https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-yemen-security-idUKKBN270091.
The New Arab. (2015, 26 October). “Oman's foreign minister meets Syria's Bashar al-Assad in Damascus.” Accessed from https://english.alaraby.co.uk/news/omans-foreign-minister-meets-syrias-bashar-al-assad-damascus.
Umar, B. (2016, 16 December). “Yemen’s war wounded find comfort in ‘brotherly’ Oman.” Al-Jazeera. Accessed from https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/12/16/yemens-war-wounded-find-comfort-in-brotherly-oman/.
UNHCR. (2015). “Yemen Situation.” Accessed from https://data.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/32397.
United Nations (2021, 6 January). “UN chief welcomes declaration on resolving the ‘Gulf rift’.” Accessed from https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/01/1081452.
Coppi, G. (2018). The Humanitarian Crisis in Yemen: Beyond the Man-Made Disaster. Vienna: International Peace Institute.
Creswell, J. W. (2018). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Method. Los Angeles: SAGE Publication.
Finnemore, M. (1996). National Interest in International Society. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Funsch, L.P. (2015). Oman Reborn: Balancing Tradition and Modernization. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Goshey, E. (2019). Omani Ibadism: Transitions in Modernity, Encounters with Salafism. New Jersey: Princeton University.
Hoffman, V.J. (2012). The Essentials of Ibadi Islam. New York: Syracuse University Press.
Kechichian, J.A. (1995). Oman and the World: The Emergence of an Independent Foreign Policy. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation.
Klotz, A. & Lynch, C. (2007). Strategies for Research in Constructivist International Relations. New York: M.E. Sharpe.
Oman Ministry of Information (2015). The Royal Speeches of His Majesty Sultan Qaboos Bin Said. Muscat: Oman Ministry of Information.
Paul, C., Clarke, C. P., Grill, B. & Dunigan, M. (2013). Paths to Victory: Detailed Insurgency Case Studies. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation.
Chapter in Book
Baabood, A. (2016). Oman’s Independent Foreign Policy. In Khalid S. Almezaini & Jean-Marc Rickli, The Small Gulf States: Foreign and Security Policies Before and After the Arab Spring (pp. 107-122). London: Taylor & Francis.
Baabood, A. & Baabood, A. (2020). Omani and Qatari Roles in the Yemen Crisis. In Stephen W. Day & Noel Brehony, Global, Regional, and Local Dynamics in the Yemen Crisis (pp. 165-178). London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Jepperson, R., Wendt, A. & Katzenstein, P.J. (1996). Norms, Identity, and Culture in National Security. In Peter J. Katzenstein, The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics (33-75). New York: Columbia University Press.
Feierstein, G. M. (2018). Yemen and the GCC Crisis. In Khalid Al-Jaber & Sigurd Neubauer, The Gulf Crisis: Reshaping the Alliances in the Middle East (pp. 109-134). Washington DC: Gulf International Forum.
Journal
Abdulkareem, A. (2017). Oman Positions on the Regional Crisis. Al-Bayan Center for Planning and Studies, 1-15.
Albasoos, H. & Maashani, M. (2020). Oman’s Diplomacy Strategy: Maneuvering Tools to Face Regional Challenges. International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science, 9(2), 152-163.
Amiri, R.E., Samsu, K.H.B.K. & Gholipour, H.F. (2011). The Hajj and Iran’s Foreign Policy towards Saudi Arabia. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 46(6), 678-690.
Basundoro, A.F. (2020). Perang Proksi Kontemporer Arab Saudi-Iran Sebagai Bentuk Turbulensi Timur Tengah: Sebuah Analisis Geopolitik. Jurnal Penelitian Politik, 17(1), 1-16.
Bierschenk, T. (1988). Religion and Political Structure: Remarks on Ibadism in Oman and the Mzab (Algeria). Studia Islamica, 68, 107-127.
Binhuwaidin, M. (2019). Oman’s Response to a Rising Iran: A Case of Strategic Hedging. Journal of Arabian Studies, 9(1), 1-12.
Elliott, C.D. (2018). Developing Tolerance and Conservatism: A Study of Ibadi Oman. UCLA Journal of Religion, 2, 146-179.
Finnemore, M. & Sikkink, K. (1998). International Norm Dynamics and Political Change. International Organization, 52(4), 887-917.
Guzansky, Y. (2015). The Foreign-Policy Tools of Small Powers: Strategic Hedging in the Persian Gulf. Middle East Policy, 22(1), 112-122.
Horton, M. (2020). Yemen’s War Test Oman’s Neutrality: Focusing on the Saudi Footprint in al-Mahra. Terrorism Monitor, 18(20), 3-5.
Lefebvre, J.A. (2010). Oman’s Foreign Policy in the Twenty-First Century. Middle East Policy, 17(1), 99-114.
Miller, J. (1997). Creating Modern Oman: An Interview with Sultan Qabus. Foreign Affairs, 76(3), 13-18.
O’Reilly, M. J. (1998). Omanibalancing: Oman Confronts an Uncertain Future. Middle East Journal, 52(1), 70-84.
Rabi, U. (2006). Oman and the Arab-Israeli Conflict: The Reflection of a Pragmatic Foreign Policy. Israel Affairs, 11(3), 535-551.
Wahyuni, S. & Baharuddin, S. S. B. (2018). The Impact of the GCC Boycott on Qatar Foreign Policy. Jurnal Transformasi Global, 4(2), 80-89.
Newspaper Article: Online
Al-Falahi, A. (2016, 11 October). “Just how neutral is Oman in Yemen war?” Al-monitor. Accessed from https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2016/10/oman-neutral-saudi-war-iran-houthis.html.
Central Intelligence Agency. (2023). “The World Factbook: Oman.” Accessed from https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/oman/.
Dudley, D. (2017, 8 June). “A Winner Emerges From The Qatar Crisis: Oman's National Airline.” Forbes. Accessed from https://www.forbes.com/sites/dominicdudley/2017/06/08/oman-air-takes-advantage-of-qatar-crisis/?sh=10d3407525b4.
Gulf News. (2002, 09 April). “Oman's Grand Mufti tells Muslims to unite to defeat the enemy.” Accessed from https://gulfnews.com/uae/omans-grand-mufti-tells-muslims-to-unite-to-defeat-the-enemy-1.384208.
Reuters. (2020, 15 October). “Two U.S. nationals released by Houthi rebels in possible prisoner swap.” Accessed from https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-yemen-security-idUKKBN270091.
The New Arab. (2015, 26 October). “Oman's foreign minister meets Syria's Bashar al-Assad in Damascus.” Accessed from https://english.alaraby.co.uk/news/omans-foreign-minister-meets-syrias-bashar-al-assad-damascus.
Umar, B. (2016, 16 December). “Yemen’s war wounded find comfort in ‘brotherly’ Oman.” Al-Jazeera. Accessed from https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/12/16/yemens-war-wounded-find-comfort-in-brotherly-oman/.
UNHCR. (2015). “Yemen Situation.” Accessed from https://data.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/32397.
United Nations (2021, 6 January). “UN chief welcomes declaration on resolving the ‘Gulf rift’.” Accessed from https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/01/1081452.
Published
2023-04-10
How to Cite
RAHMAN, Maulana Ammar Auliaur.
Caught Between Great Powers: Oman’s Neutrality in the Saudi-Iran Rivalry.
Insignia: Journal of International Relations, [S.l.], v. 10, n. 1, p. 1-21, apr. 2023.
ISSN 2597-9868.
Available at: <https://jos.unsoed.ac.id/index.php/insignia/article/view/7792>. Date accessed: 04 apr. 2025.
doi: https://doi.org/10.20884/1.ins.2023.10.1.7792.
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Articles
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